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HOME LIFE IN
EARLY INDIANA

by

WILLIAM fpj:derjck vogel

Prepared by the Staff of the

Public Library of Fort Wayne and Allen County

1954

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FOREWORD

In his essay, "Home Life in Early Indiana," William Frederick Vogel
vividly portrays everyday living conditions of early Hoosier settlers. The
ingenuity and resourcefulness of the pioneer in adapting native nnaterials
to his needs is well illustrated.

This article was published in the INDIANA MAGAZINE OF HISTORY.
Volume X, June, 1914. Dr. John D. Barnhart, editor of that historical
publication, has graciously permitted the reprinting of the article. The
author has also accorded permission.

WcliUia ^e^d? Va^^ai

WILLIAM FREDERICK VOGEL

The author of the following historical essay has long been associated
with the public schools of Indiana. Born in Vanderburgh County, Indiana,
on September Zl, 1884, Mr. Vogel was educated in the rural elementary
schools of Boon Township and at Boonville High School, Boonviile, Indiana.
In 1912, he was granted the Bachelor of Arts degree by Indiana University;
Columbia University conferred the Master of Arts degree in 1917.

Mr. Vogel's teaching career began in the elennentary schools of War-
rick County in 1904. From 1909 to 1913, he served as high school princi-
pal, first at Poseyville, later at North Vernon. Appointed superintendent
of schools at North Vernon in 1913, he remained there until 1918. Later
as superintendent, he administered the public schools in Boonville (1918-
1926), in Shelby ville (1927-1933), and in Jeffersonville (1938-1951).

Mr. Vogel also served as Director of Teacher Training, Indiana De-
partment of Education (1925-1927) and as head of the Indiana Federal WPA
Educational Program (1935-1938). Since 1951, Mr. Vogel has been prin-
cipal of Rose Hill Elementary School, Jeffersonville. He has contributed
articles to THE INDIANA TEACHER.

.^ V ^*"' ^ fyt

CHAPTER I. THE HOME

One of the most difficult things for either the writer or reader of history
Is to picture to his mind the living conditions of the age under consideration.
In this day of ease and convenience one seldom can, and more rarely
does recall, how the people of Indiana lived three quarters of a century
ago. It requires some effort of imagination to visualize an ox team on a
muddy road in the depth of an unbroken forest. To realize what a trip
from Indianapolis to Cincinnati in an ox wagon was like ninety years
ago requires more effort than most of us care to bestow.

Without this realization of the actual conditions of existence one
cannot hope to attain a sympathetic appreciation of the history of any
people. The following article is published in the belief that it will trans-
port the reader back to pioneer times. — Ed.

LOCATION OF THE HOUSE

The location of the pioneer's home was a matter of no little
concern. Good drainage and an abundant water supply were the
chief considerations, as upon these health and life depended. If
there was a creek in the neighborhood the settler usually pitched
his cabin on a bit of ground bordering the stream, for in that way
he secured a natural drainage. If no creek was near, he selected
the highest and driest hill or knoll on his purchase, provided of
course that it contained a spring of running water. Springs were
more numerous then than at present. The thick, leafy carpet of

the woods acted as a kind of sponge which absorbed the rain as it
fell and later gave it up gradually to feed the numerous springs
and streams, very many of which flowed all summer long. Around
the cabin in all directions as far as the eye could see (until clear-
ings had been made) were great green trees, lifting their tall,
stately columns to the sky. Their thick heavy foliage shut out
the sunlight from the ground until frost laid bare the boughs.
Underneath in many places was a dense thicket of spice wood,
hazel-bushes, briars, young saplings, and other underbrush and,
lying here and there, were fallen tree trunks rotting into soil.

THE HALF-FACED CAMP

Many of the early settlers lived for a few months, and some
of the less enterprising even for a few years, in what was then
called a half-faced camp.^ This temporary home was hastily
constructed to afford shelter to the family while they were engaged
in the more necessary work of preparing the ground and planting
and tending the first crop of Indian corn. The structure was made
by placeijig two large strong forks in the ground at a proper dis-
tance from a fallen tree to make a twelve or fourteen foot pen.
Next a pole was placed from fork to fork, and other poles from
that one to the log as closely as desired. Over these a thick layer
of brush was piled to serve as a roof. The two sides were filled
with logs which were rolled up. The fourth side, usually facing
the south, was left open. During cold weather a great fire was
made at this open end, and the family slept with their feet toward
it, their heads toward the fallen tree. Skins also were hung at
this opening to keep out the rain and the cold; often too the sides
were covered and lined inside with skins of animals. This was
a crude shelter but it served the settler until he had time and
means to construct a better home. Abraham Lincoln's Spencer
county home was one of these half-faced camps.

CABIN OF THE EARLIER PERIOD

The pioneer of the earlier period with his pressing needs was
not able to construct an elaborate cabin. Later, when he had
accumulated some wealth, when his clearing had been extended and

» William A.. Cockrum, A Pioneer Hittory of Indiana, p. 161.

8

1

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he had a stock of domestic animals and a supply of grain and food,
he would turn his attention to a more commodious dwelling. This
fact produced two stages in pioneer home building.

The cabins of the early period were rough and crude. The
majority of the first settlers were young men just married, who had
come boldly into the western wilderness with their wives and
a little personal property. When they had found a suitable home-
sight the cabin was constructed forthwith. After the logs had been
cut, the settler and his friends dragged them together and put
them into a clumsy, box-like, one-room structure. The roof was
made of clap-boards rived from white oak, and the boards were
held in place by weight poles. Cracks between the logs were
filled with pieces of timber wedged in and the whole daubed over
with mud. A hole the proper size of a door was cut in the side,
and often the shutter was a bear skin. The fireplace and the
chimney were built on the outside at the end of the cabin. An
opening of the proper width was cut through three or four logs,
then a three sided crib was built up joining the building. The
inside of this crib was lined with layer upon layer of mud to make
it solid and prevent any danger of fire. The floor of the building
was easily constructed — it was nothing more than mother earth. In
this crude shelter the early settler, his wife and his children, lived
and laid the foundation for a great estate. ^

Baynard Hall in his New Purchase gives a terse description
of one of those primitive cabins.^ '*It was, in truth, a barbarous
rectangle of unhewed and unbarked logs, and bound together by
a gigantic devetailing called notching. The roof was thick, rick-
ety shingles, called clap-boards; which, when clapped on were
held down by longitudinal poles kept apart by shorter pieces placed
between them perpendicularly. The interstices of the log walls
were 'chinked,' the 'chinking' being large chips and small slabs,
dipping like strata of rocks in geology, and then on the 'chinking'
was 'daubing,' viz., a sufficient quantity of yellow clay ferociously
splashed in soft by the hand of the architect, and then left to harden
at its leisure." The chimney was outside the house and a short
distance from it. It was built of logs reposing upon one another
at their corners and topped off with flag stones. It was moreover
daubed, and so admirably as to look like a mud stack.

' Hall. The Srw Purchase, I, 60.
BanU, History of Johnson County, p. 245 ff.

10

HOUSE OF THE LATER PERIOD

After the settler had become established, and the country had
been more extensively settled, more commodious homes^ were built.
A suitable location having been obtained, the work of construction
progressed rapidly. Various woods were used — sugartree, maple,
beech, ash, poplar, and hickory. Trees of uniform size were selected,
cut into logs of the desired length, usually twelve to fifteen feet, and
hauled to the chosen spot. On a day appointed, the available
neighbors assembled for the ''house raising" when fun and pleas-
ures were mingled with the hard labor ; in fact such occasions were
usually regarded as holidays. Each log was saddled and notched
so that it would fit down as close as possible. The foundation logs
were carefully placed in a level position, and upon them the punch-
eon floor was laid. The puncheons were large slabs of hard wood,
sometimes three or four inches thick, and five or six feet long.
They were smoothed on the upper side with an adz, so that they
usually made a smooth, level floor. The logs of the wall were laid
on and fitted together as closely as possible to lessen the size of
the cracks and strengthen the structure. The chinks, or places
between the logs were filled with sticks split to fit the crevices as
snugly as possible, and then were plastered over with tough clay
or mortar. This shut out the weather effectually. The rude logs
often put out leaves and the cabin sometimes presented the appear-
ance of a green bower. The usual height of the building was
seven or eight feet. The gables were formed by the shortening of
the logs gradually at each end of the building as the top approached.
A roof was made by laying stout poles suitable distances apart,
generally two and a half feet, from gable to gable. On these poles
the clap-boards were laid, and were fastened down by weight poles
which were held in place by ''knees," pieces of wood fitting between
the poles near the ends. The fireplace was formed either by leav-
ing a place in the wall or by cutting an opening after the walls were
in position. From this opening a three-sided enclosure of small
split logs was built outward. Inside this enclosure was a similar
temporary one, built with a space of twelve to fifteen inches between

' Hall, Tfu New Purchase, I, 60.
Levering. Historic Indiana, p. 64.
Turpie, Sketches of My Own Timet, p. 2.
Indiana Magazine of History, III, p. 126 ff.
Cocknim, A Pioneer History of Indiana, p. 64.

11

the two sets of walls; and into this space moist clay was firmly
pounded and left to dry. When the false wall was removed or
burned away, the clay formed the protecting back for the fire
place, extending four or five feet up. Upon and above this was
built the chimney, either of stone or sticks. Rived sticks heavily
plastered with mud were the usual materials. The chimney was
gradually tapered to the proper size for securing a good draft, and
then built up until it was higher than the roof. The hearth and
the bottom of the fire place were made by filling in the triangular
crib with wet clay to the level of the cabin floor. This was pounded
with a maul until hard and firm, then wet with water and scraped
^^ith a wooden scraper.

A few log cabins and more often, the early taverns, were built
two stories high, but this was not usual.

The fire places were from five to ten feet wide and occupied
almost one entire end of the house. ^ They were often large enough
to receive firewood six or eight feet long, and sometimes the back
log was as large as a sawlog. There was a reason for this, for
the more quickly the pioneer could burn up the wood on his land,
the more quickly he could have it cleared and ready for cultivation.
While the cabin was being built openings for the windows and doors
were sawed in the walls. Slabs fastened to the ends of these logs
by wooden pins served as frames for the opening. At a later
period glass was sometimes used for the windows, but the usual
material was greased paper; even greased deerskin was sometimes
used. The door, made of thick rived boards of the proper length
across which heavy battens were pinned was hung on great wooden
hinges. Sometimes it was made of clapboards pinned to two or
three wooden bars. A heavy wooden latch was attached to the
door. This latch could be raised from the outside by the proverbial
latch string, which passed through a hole, and hung on the out-
side. At night the string was drawn in for security ,but for
neighbors and friends the latch string was always on the outside.
No people in the world were more generous, free hearted, and
hospitable than the early pioneers; and their hospitality and good
cheer had with it a flavor that can not be copied.

Most cabins contained a loft or attic story which was reached
by a rude ladder at the corner. This cubby hole fumi.shed a
sleeping quarters for the boys of the family.

> BanU, Hitlory of Johnton County, p. 246.

12

Double log cabins were frequently built, especially in the older
and more prosperous communities.* It was really a combination
of two cabins. The space between the two was known as the
entry and was wide and roomy. The entry was roofed with clap-
boards, and its floor formed of clay and gravel beaten do^^•n hard
and smooth. Since it was open at both ends one could find there,
even on the hottest day, a cool, refreshing draft of air. Such
cabins were a long step in advance of the little one room structure
of the early day, so far as comfort and convenience were concerned,
and, no doubt, many a pioneer house wife has looked with pardon-
able pride upon her splendid mansion, as a house of two rooms
was considered particularly fine.

The first cabins were constructed entirely without the use of
nails or any scrap of iron.* Perhaps the axe was the only tool used.
But after the first years glass, nails, and other imported materials
were commonly used, and, with the establishment of saw mills,
sawed boards took the place of hewed logs. These later cabins, in
comparison with the earlier ones, presented a very neat appearance
with their smooth, even walls daubed with mortar, and their floors,
frames and finishing of yellow poplar.

FURNITURE AND FIREPLACE EQUIPMENT

If the house of the pioneer was rough and crude, its furni-
ture was in keeping with it. Everything was homemade, direct
from the forest. Beds were made by utilizing one corner of the
room. Holes were bored into two logs of the wall at the proper
height from the floor, and into them sticks were driven horizontally
and at right angles, the ends of the sticks being supported by an
upright stake driven into the floor. Sometimes cracks in the walls
obviated the necessity of boring holes. Upon the framework was
woven a bottom of withes, bark or deer-skin thongs to support
the bedding, crude framework often made of brush covered with
skins of animals.^ On this bed was generally found the proverbial
three-figured "coverlid" of Carolina and Tennessee housewives.
Any deficiency in bed clothing was supplied by bear and deer
skins. ^

• Turpie, SMcKet of My Own Timet, pp. 9-10.
Indiana Magazine of History, III, 127.

• Indiana Magazine of History, III. 12S.

• B*Dta. History of Johnson Couniy, p. 247.

14

^«A»fl^

Guests were usually given this bed, while the family provided
for themselves in another corner of the room, or in the loft. When
many guests were on hand at once all slept in the center of the
floor. When bedtime came the men were requested to step out
of doors while the women spread out a broad bed upon the mid-
floor and put themselves to bed. Then the men were called in. The
sleepers were generally so crowded that they had to sleep "spoon
fashion," and it was necessary for all to turn together. When
anyone wished to turn over he would say "spoon" and the whole
company would turn at once.

Three legged stools often took the place of chairs. Some of
the more prosperous settlers possessed hickory chairs with splint
bottoms, but stools and benches rived out of logs ordinarily served
for seats, especially at the table. Even the back log of the fireplace
served as a seat. Tables were often made in the same way as the
beds — in a comer of the room. For tops they had thick boards made
smooth with an axe. Over the cabin door was the gun rack, made
usually by fastening prongs of deer antlers into augur holes, or
simply of forked cleats. On this the trusty rifle and powder horn
rested. Hooks on which to hang clothes and other articles were
fashioned from the forked or crooked branches of treets.

Above the fireplace was a shelf called the mantel which was
often colored deep blue with dye of indigo. On this stood a candle-
stick or lamp, some table ware, possibly an old clock, and perhaps
a few books. Often in the summer two or three crocks planted with
morning glories were placed on the shelf, and when the vines
fell downward, their leaves and bloosoms hid the old fireplace as
effectually as a curtain would have concealed it.

In the fire place was an old fashioned crane, sometimes of wood,
sometimes of iron, and on this pots were hung for cooking- Forked
sticks with pins stuck into the longer arms made pot hooks, which
were caught over a pole or "cross tree" that was fixed in the
fireplace a safe distance above the fire, the pots being hung on the
pins. An improvement on this was the "trammel hook" formed of
flat bar iron hooked at the end, while at the other, an adjustable
hook could be raised or lowered as desired and secured by means
of an iron pin inserted in holes that were drilled along the bar.
With the advent of the brick chimneys, of course came the swinging

16

iron cranes. These, set in iron eyes embedded in the masonry, could
be turned freely, the long arms carrying the pots out over the
hearth when desired.

Each of the four corners of the one-room houses was usually
occupied by some essential article of furniture. In one corner
stood the large bed for the old folks, with a trundle bed under it for
the children; in another, the heavy table, generally the only one
in the house; in another the rough cupboard which contained the
tableware, consisting of a few cups, saucers and plates standing on
edge against the back to make the best display poossible ; in the
fourth, the old fashioned spinning wheel, whose continual hum
made music for the busy family.

It was good to live in one of these simple homes. If the house
itself was limited in its capacity, the hearts of the occupants were
large and kindly. The following quotation fitly describes them.
"These simple cabins were inhabited by a kind and true hearted
people. They were strangers to mock modesty, and the traveller,
seeking lodging for the night, or desirous of spending a few days in
the community, if willing to accept the rude offering was always
welcome. As to how they were disposed of at night the reader can-
not easily imagine ; for, as described a single room was made to
answer for kitchen, dining-room, bedroom, sitting-room and parlor,
and many families consisted of six or eight members."^

The early pioneer could not have remained very long if it
had not been for the abundance of game of all kinds in the forest.
Often, for weeks at a time, they had no other food than deer, bear
and wild turkey meat. With this they frequently used a substitute
for bread of roasted acorns, pounding the mixture into a meal, of
which they made ash cakes. This was very coarse fare, but the
pioneer families subsisted very well on such diet until they could
raise a patch of corn- Hard labor furnished ravenous appetites,
and dyspepsia and other stomach troubles were unknown.

METHOD OF COOKING

One is almost surprised at the various methods of cooking that
were used.^ Cooking stoves did not come into use until 1820, and
even as late as 1835 a large majority of the families prepared their

^ Bant*, History of Johnson County, p. 246.

• Cockrum, A Pioneer History of Indiana, p. 323.

17

foods in the old fashioned way. In the early days cooking utensils
v/ere not plentiful. The settlers came a long way over mountains
from the seaboard States, in rough wagons and carts, on horseback,
or even on foot. Consequently it was difficult to bring many dishes
or utensils. Many of the poorer immigrants had but a single skillet
in their cabins. An old lady relates that when she was a grown
woman there was not more than one vessel for cooking in any home
in the neighborhood and that one was nearly always a skillet with
a lid. Some made with their own hands rough pots of clay, which
served until they could get iron ones. These crude pots were not
glazed, so tliat when meat was cooked the grease came through the
pores, and the outside of the pot was continually afire. In the more
comfortable homes the cooking was done in large kettles hung with
pothooks from an iron crane over the great fire in tlie fireplace. Meat
was cooked in a long handled frying pan, which was held over the
blaze by hand or set down upon coals drawTi out upon the hearth.

This pan was also used for baking pancakes, sometimes called
* 'flap-jacks," and bread, too, was frequently made on it. Johnny
cake was baked on a board made for this purpose, about ten inches
wide and fifteen inches long and rounding at the top. The thick
corn dough was placed on the board which was set against a chunk
of wood near the fire. After one side had been baked to a nice
brown, the other side was treated in the same way. The resulting
Ciike was often delicious. If a johnny-cake board was not at hand
a hoe, without a handle; was cleaned and greased with bear's oil-
The dough was baked on this metal surface and was called a hoe-
cake. If neither a johnny-cake board nor a hoe was to be had,
the dough was wrapped in cabbage leaves or fresh cornshucks, laid
ill a clean place on the hearth, and covered with live embers, which
thoroughly baked it. This was called an ash cake. A better article
for baking was a covered skillet called a ''spider."* This utensil
stood upon feet and was heated over the hearth with hickory coals
piled over and under it; no flame was suffered to blaze around the
skillet. The more prosperous families used the Dutch oven for
baking, especially in the summer time. This was made of bricks
and mortar, or small boulders, or even tough clay, wrought and
beaten into shape and burned by slow fires built inside. It was
usually set upon a wooden platform away from the house because

• Levering, Historic Indiana, p. 68.

18

>i»-

of the danger of fires, and was protected by a shed. In shape it
a])peared much like a round dome, resembling considerably the old-
time bee-hive. After the oven was thoroughly heated the fire was
raked out and the bread and pies set in upon the floor, the body of
the oven restaining enough heat to do the cooking.

ARTICLES OF FOOD

The chief articles of diet in the early days were cornbread and
hominy; venison, wild turkey, squirrel, and other wild game; duck
and chicken; lioney, beans, pumpkin, (dried for more than half the
year,) potatoes, and other vegetables. In the early times, sweets,
pastries, and biscuits were luxuries, which were served out only
on Sundays. A travelling circuit judge described a limited fare:
"Three articles of diet, only, appeared on the plain walnut table,
corn dodgers, boiled squirrel, and sassafras tea."^^ But the later
pioneer had many delicacies. Potpie, jellies, pies, custards, pound
cakes, and preserves were not strange to his palate, in addition to the
more subtantial foods. On Sundays and feast-days his table fairly
groaned with good things.

Commeal was the staple article of sustenance. When the
corn was still green they grated the pulp for hoecakes. A grater
was made from a piece of tin, often taken from an old worn out
tin bucket- After many holes had been punched through, it was
nailed on boards by the edges. The soft corn was rubbed on the
rough side of this grater, the meal passing through the perforations
and falling into a pan. Hominy corn was pounded in a hominy
block, formed by cutting or burning a hole in a stump. A pole
twenty or thirty feet long was fixed in an upright fork so that it
could be worked like a well sweep. To one end, a large heavy maul
was attached by means of which the corn was pounded. A little
later a small hand-mill made of two small round stones came into
use. Four bushels of corn could be ground in one day by the use of
this mill, and at that time this was considered a great advance in
the milling industry.^ ^ But when the country became more settled
men embarked in the milling business. The little water mills along

'• O H. Smith, Early Indiana TriaU and Sketchtt, p. 169.
" Cockrum, A Pioneer Jlittory 0/ Indiana, p. 196 ff.

20

the stream did a good business. Mills being so great a public
necessity, they were permitted to be located upon any person's land
where the miller thought the site desirable.^^

Ordinarily there was no trouble in getting the grist and bring-
ing it home. But twice a year, during the spring floods or fall
droughts, the streams were either too low or too high for grinding.
At such times the neighbors borrowed meal from each other until the
last sack was gone. Finally the old block was brought from its
cover to furnish hominy. In the late summer the people also resort-
ed to succotash. With the temporary supplies the settler lived
until the miU wheels turned again.

The pioneer was a thrifty souL His larder was always stocked
for the winter. Pumpkin was dried in large quantities, besides fruits
of all kinds. He excelled in curing meats. The ashes of hickory
bark (shellbark) were carefully gathered up and stored away in a
dry place- At the hog killing season the choicest hams were
selected, and, having been salted, smoked, and dried, they were
laid aside in these white, feathery hickory ashes where they remain-
ed until March or April, or sometimes later, when they were brought
out for table use. Such choice hams were known as * 'hickory*' hams
and had a pleasant odor and flavor when served at the table.
Genuine hickory hams were seldom seen in the market however;
they were reserved for home consumption.^' Great pits of luscious
apples furnished delightful food for the long, cold winter evenings,
and barrels of cider were at hand to add good cheer.

HOMEaiADE UTENSILS

With his axe the early settler found little difficulty Ln manu-
facturing the rude utensils which he needed about the home. Trays,
large and small, were made from soft poplar, buckeye and bass-
wood- Trenchers and bowls for the kitchen use were hewn from
sections of maple logs, and then burned or scraped smooth.
Gourds of every shape and size were raised. Being of many shapes
and sizes, they were used when scraped out and cleaned, for a
variety of purposes.^* The gourd hung as a dipper beside the
spring or well and was a companion to the cider barrel and whiskey

** Banta. matorg af Jokumm Oammif, ^ tSI.

CoAmm, A Biometr Hutorf of ,
■* Tnrpie. Sketeita of Mg Own Tbmet, p. 17.
!c^iiiiivy,m.l3i.

21

jug. It was used at the table, at the Ij'e kettle, at the sugar camp —
for soup, soap or sap. A large one split in half made a wash pan
or milk pan. A small one was often used by the grandmother as a
form over which to darn socks. The small boy carried his bait in
one when he went fishing, and the baby used another for a rattle.
The chum was sometimes a mere trough and paddle. A curious,
clumsy wooden machine for kneading bread was called a dough
break. Water was frequently carried by a yoke that fitted across
the shoulders with a thong hanging from each end by which two
buckets of water could be carried, leaving the hands free to carry
two more if necessary.

LIGHTING OF THE HOUSE

The home was lighted by the blaze of tlie great fireplace, and by
tallow candles. Candle making, indeed, became an art, and candle
moulds with balls of cotton wicking could be seen in every house-
A good lamp was modeled from clay in the form of a cup which was
burned hard. When this was filled with bear's oil and fitted with
a cotton wick, it gave a very good light. The cotton too, was grown
in the dooryard.

Matches in the early days were unknown, so the matter of
starting fires was a serious one. Often, when a settler was unfor-
tunate enough to let his fire die out in the fireplace, he sent to his
nearest neighbor to borrow coals to rekindle it. Usually a blaze
was kindled by means of punk.^^ It was a peculiar, dry, spongy
wood found in the knots on the trunks of the trees and also in
larger branches. Hickory trees especially furnished excellent punk.
But the substance was not plentiful, and was rather valuable. It
was absolutely necessary to keep it dry; the least dampness rendered
it useless. To start a fire a small bit of punk was held close to a
flint which, when struck with a piece of steel, let fall a shower
of sparks upon it. One of these sparks beginning to burn, the punk
was surrounded with dry tow or leaves and the mass fanned into
a blaze. Then with dry kindling-wood a good fire was built.

THE PROBLEM OF CLOTHING

The dress of the early settlers was entirely homemade, but it
was suitable for the life which he led. They paid little attention

'* Maurice Thompton. Sioriet oj Indiana, p. 86.

22

to style but service and durability were considerations of prime
importance. The men always wore a substantial hunting shirt
made of blue linsey or course buckskin. It was a loose frock coat
reaching below the middle of the thighs. The sleeves were large
and the front part of the garment was made very full so that it
lapped over more than a foot when it was belted. To it was
attached a large, full cape, much like those worn by the Union
Cavalry of the Civil War. In the spacious bosom of this garment
the hunter could very conveniently carry articles he needed- The
belt was frequently sewed to the shirt which was usually ornamented
by a heavy fringe, sometimes of red or gray colors, around the
bottom and down the shoulder seams. This disposition to adorn the
garment was borrowed from the Indians. A well-tanned and well-
made suit of buckskin gave the wearer a rather neat and jaunty
appearance with a touch of aboriginal elegance. Occasionally a
lover of primitive finery had his shirt and moccasins ornamented
with beads and brightly colored porcupine quills, but those intended
for the chase or for scouting w^ere of a dull color to attract as little
attention as possible. An undershirt or vest was usually made of
striped linsey. Trousers of buckskin, linsey, or course blue cloth
were made very close fitting, and over them the pioneer wore a pair
of buckskin leggings fringed down the outside seams like those of
the Indians. Moccasins of deerskin or shoepacks of tanned leather
provided a comfortable footwear. Some wore shoes, but this was not
common in the earlier period. In fact in the summer everybody,
male and female, old and young,went barefooted. For headdress the
men usually wore a coonskin cap. In summer they made hats from
wild oat straw or from flags that grew^ in the ponds. Even the
inside bark of the mulberry roots was cleaned and worked into
light durable hats for summer wear. Gloves with the fur on one
side were made from the skins of small animals. Buffalo over-
coats were worn in extremely cold weather.

Deerskin was used widely for clothing, not only because it was
available, but because it resisted nettles, briars, bites of snakes, and
was an excellent protection from the cold. But it had its draw-
backs/'*^ When w^et, as it often was, the garment would shrink to
a third of its usual size and become stiff and unwieldy. So, as soon
as the pioneer could protect a flock of sheep from the wolves he

»• Levering, Hietorie Indiana, p. 69.

23

had woolen clothing. In dry weather deerskin moccasins were
excellent footwear, but in soft snow or rain they were not at all
comfortable.

Women did not have as elaborate costumes as men but they
dressed to suit their work.^' The frock and habit were the chief
outer garments, the shirt and body in both being attached to each
other, making one garment. Often a shirt or petticoat was worn
over some sort of dress made much like a modern lady's night-
gown. In cold weather a waist or jacket was added to the skirt.
The fastenings were hooks and eyes or ordinary brass pins for the
habit, and buttons for the frocks which fastened at the back. Like
the men the women went barefooted in summer and wore moccasins
or shoepacks in winter. They had flannel shawls of various colors
and often with a fringe sewed all around. In summer they wore on
their heads a simple sun bonnet, in winter a thick quilted hood.
Elderly women always wore caps, night and day.^^ For handker-
chiefs they had small, homemade squares of white cotton cloth of
their own spinning and weaving. Their gloves were made from
the best squirrels' skins which were as soft as the best kid and
lasted a long time.

The small child was provided with a tow shirt that hung
straight from the shoulders to the heels. This was thought to be
euflficient for summer weather. Both boys and girls dressed as little
men and women and were made to appear old and sedate before
their time. When the boys were ready for pantaloons they had
them full length like their fathers, and they were made several
sizes too large, for the youngster was expected to grow to fit them
or even outgrow them before they were worn out.

When larger the boy wore a '* Sunday-go-to-meeting" suit
made of brown and blue jeans, better woven and more carefully
made than his earlier clothes. The trousers which folded over
his cowhide boots and bagged at the knees and seat, were big
enough in girth for two boys. The coat hung loose at the shoulders
and elbows and the sleeves were turned up at the wrists. A round-
cornered stiff-brimmed hat completed the picture of discomfort.
He was never at ease except in his well worn togs.

In 1820 a change in dress began to take place and by 1830 the
pioneer costumes were disappearing.^^ The hunting shirt had

'^ Indiana MagcLzim of History II., 186.
•• Cockrum, A Fioiiter HUtory, p. 193.
•• Banta, History of Johnton County, p. 251.

24

>>^

given way to the cloth coat ; the coonskin cap with tail dangling
down behind had been cast aside for the wool or fur hats; boots
and shoes had supplanted deerskin moccasins. The change in
women's dress was equally marked. The old linsey-woolsey frocks
had given place to gowns of calico or silk ; their feet were encased
with shoes instead of moccasins; and in place of the sun-bonnet and
quilted hood they wore hats of straw or cloth, and even leghorns
were seen occasionally.

Men of the better class wore a swallow-tailed coat of broad-
cloth with trousers and vest to match. The coat was double-breast-
ed and glittered with a row of brass buttons which imparted a
certain dignity and grandeur to the gentleman of the old school.
The whole suit was topped off with a great bell crowned beaver
hat. A black silk stock over stiff buckram encircled his neck and
held up his chin in painful stateliness. In cold weather they also
wore a stylish cloak or topcoat with, or without a cape.

The dress of the women of the later period was a reflection of
the rule of fashion which had begun. "They wore stiff brocades,
shining taffetas, and peau de sole of quaint designs, "^o Beautiful
furs were extensively worn because pelts were plentiful and cheap.
Skirts were flounced and worn over a large hoop which made the
wearer resemble a miniature balloon. Enormous muffs, measuring
from eighteen to twenty-two inches in length, and bonnets support-
ing a garden of flowers decked the belles of the towns. In the
evening the girls wore flowers in their hair and around the low neck
and skirts of ther gowns, and curls were as effective at that time
as they are today, upon the opposite sex. Men and women travelled
everywhere in their showy costumes, on the stage coach, the steam-
boat, and in town.

The clothing of the pioneers was made from various materials.
Of course, at first they used the skins of animals from necessity.
Buckskin was the usual material. But as the country became more
thickly settled and sheep could be raised, wool was largely used-
They grew flax, and even tried to raise cotton, but it could not be
successfully cultivated. When the flax crop failed they went to the
rich creek bottoms where nettles grew in abundance and gathered
loads of the stalks from which they made a coarse cloth. Shirts,
trousers, towels, bed ticks, were all made of the cloth manufac-

•• Layering, Kittoric Indiana, p. 276.

26

tured from these nettles.^^ Flax was an important product for,
until cotton came into general use, it formed the chain of most
fabrics woven. The women wore linsey-woolsey (the warp of flax
and the woof of wool) for winter and tow linen for summer. They
worked continually preparing clothing for the family. Spinning,
weaving, knitting for the household were eternal tasks. As the
children grew older they relieved the mother of a great deal of the
hard toil, but even then she had much to do. Spinning was one of
the most arduous duties. There was a big wheel for spinning
yarn and a little wheel for spinning flax. The hum of the busy
wheels furnished music for the family. A loom was just as necessary
as a spinning wheel, but as they were large and cumbersome several
families owned and used one in common. A single machine had
a capacity for the needs of several families. It occupied so much
space in the cabin that it was a serious incumbrance ; hence a period
was set aside for the family weaving, after which the loom was taken
apart and stowed away. Some families had separate loom rooms.
These rude machines did excellent work producing blankets, jeans,
coverlets, and curtains of excellent material and workmanship. A
great degree of artistic art and skill was exhibited in dyeing the
yarns and weaving the complicated figures. Wool was carded by
hand-cards and made into rolls which were spun on the big wheel.
Even at this day we still find in the houses of the old settlers some
of these once used machines, especially spinning wheels.

Mothers and daughters usually made and designed their own
clothing as well as prepared and designed the cloth- But a sewing
woman who went from house to house in the neighborhood soon
made her appearance. ^^ Having had many years experience in cut-
ing, fitting, and handling the same materials, she could readily do
neat work and was always in demand.

The dye stuffs used most were the hulls of walnuts and the
inner bark of certain trees.^^ In some parts the dark bro^^^l of the
black walnut prevailed, in others the tawney tints of the white
walnut were liked best. The most aristocratic color was indigo with
which many Sunday suits and garments for special occasions were
dyed. Prepared indigo could be purchased at the village stores,
but many settlers grew their own plants and manufactured the

'« Indiana Magazine of History, VI., 78., also Cockrum, A Pioneer History of Indiana, p. 193.
»» Turpie, Sketches of My Own Times, p 28.
»» Indiana Magazine of History, III., p. 183.

27

dye. Other dyes were made from madder and copperas or maple
bark and copperas. These colors were made to alternate with the
blues and browns in striping and checking linseys. Stockings were
often dyed after the weaving, but the usual way was to dye them
in the yam.

Early settlers tanned their own leather.^* Skins that had been
preserved and dried were put into a vat of strong lye which loosened
the hair so that it could be easily removed. Then they were placed
in another vat containing a liquid made from black-oak bark, where
they were allowed to remain for several months. When taken out
and scraped and softened with bear's oil, they became very soft
and pliable. From this homemade leather the settler made his
buckskin suit and later his boots, shoes, and harness. Usually each
man was his o^ti shoemaker, but sometimes, especially in the later
period, a travelling shoemaker went from house to house to make
or to mend shoes.

CHAPTER 11. OCCUPATIONS.

WILD GAME AND HUNTING

The pioneers who first came to Indiana could not have sub-
sisted except for the abundance of wild game. Many came almost
empty-handed and others had food and supply only for a Umited
period ; not enough to last until the maturing of the first crop. For
weeks at a time they had no other food than bear, deer, or wild
turkey meat, on which they lived until they could raise a patch of
com.

So the pioneers went a-hunting. The woods and prairies were
full of bear, deer, buffaloes, pheasants, and wild turkeys, and the
streams and watercourses abounded with wild ducks and geese-
Wild pigeons were so numerous that often the sky was darkened
by their passage. A man could stand on his door step and shoot
deer without difficulty. They resorted to the ** licks" in great
numbers all through the warm seasons of the year and the veriest
tenderfoot could not fail to bring home a supply of venison. At
Collier's Lick in Brown county a man shot thirteen in one morning.
Another knocked one in the head with an axe as it attempted to
run past him while he was splitting rails.^^ In early spring droves

»♦ Cockrnm. A Pioneer HittorTf 0/ Indiana, p. 194.
'• HiMtory of Johnson County, p. 344.

28

/^^^

r

^'^^^^

of them wandered into the wheat fields, but. as they were too
poor for food the farmers drove them away with hickory rattles.
Fire hunting was a favorite method of killing deer. In his light
canoe, with a pine knot or torch flaming from the bow, the hunter
would float down the stream. When a deer came down to the
waters edge to drink, the torch would "shine his eyes," and,
dazzled by the brightness he would stand motionless, gazing at the
light, while the rifle of the boatman laid him low. White men
learned from the Indians how to jerk venison. A hunk of venison
hung from the rafters of almost every cabin and it was the custom
of visitors to slice off a piece to chew during the conversation.
Hunting was a trying labor. When the streams were overflown the
hunter had to wade all day through the wet; and in winter when
heavy snows covered the ground it was difficult to follow the
game. An idea of the abundance of game in the early day may
be gained from a list of the fur bearing animals that were hunted
for their pelts. Bears, wolves, deer, buffaloes, lynxes, wildcats,
opposums, beavers, otters, martens, minks, raccoons, and muskrats
abounted. Wolves were so numerous that the State encouraged
their extermination by offering a bounty for their scalps. In many
localities they had to be exterminated before sheep and pigs could
be raised. They often attacked larger animals and even men. A
Warrick county farmer who turned his horse out to graze one
night found only the bones the next morning.^^ Wolf hunts in
which hundreds of men and dogs engaged, were organized and in
this way, with the stimulation of bounty, they were driven from
the settled communities- Squirrels were so numerous that they
threatened to destroy the ripening corn altogether. In the summer
of 1834 they were especially troublesome. The woods and prairies
swarmed with them. Men and boys destroyed hundreds with clubs,
but in spite of all their efforts they threatened to destroy the corn
crop. 2" Wolves killed the sheep; foxes killed the lambs and pigs;
squirrels and raccoons ate the green corn ; and even the turtles in the
pond were expert at catching the young geese and ducks. With
so many enemies the pioneer had his hands full indeed.

All guns in early days were single barreled, muzzle-loading,
clumsy weapons with flint locks. To load a rifle, one had first to
measure a charge of powder by pouring it out of the horn into the

»• Cockrum, A Pioneer History of iTidiana, p. 499.

»' Sanford C. Cox, Early Settlement of the Wabash VaUey. p. 153.

30

charger; after this was emptied into the barrel, a patching of cloth
or thin deerskin was placed over the muzzle; upon this a bullet
was placed and pressed in as hard as possible. Next the cloth or
deerskin was clipped off as close as possible to the bullet; then the
whole was rammed down to the bottom of the barrel upon the
powder ; after priming the pan and setting the trigger the gun was
ready to fire. Sometimes the flint failed and the lock had to be
fired several times before the gun was discharged. If the powder
got damp no discharge was possible. In later years percussion caps
were introduced to the great relief of the hunter.

BEE HUNTING

In addition to hunting animals the pioneer was fond of bee
hunting. He located a bee tree by watching a bee, which he had
sprinkled witli flour and kept prisoner for some time, find its way
home again. Or he prepared a sweet-bait which he placed in a
trough on a stump. When the insect had gathered its load of sweets
it flew in a "bee line" for its home. By carefully watching the
direction taken, the backwoodsman could locate the tree, which
he then marked- A bee hunter's mark was as sacredly respected
as the mark of an owner of horses and cattle. In September the
party cut down the tree and gathered the shining honey. As several
gallons were often found in a single tree the settlers kept themselves
supplied the year around. In some places there were not enough
hollow trees for the bee colonies, so they occupied crevices in the
rocks and holes in the ground. ^^

CLEARING THE FOREST

The new settler found a primeval wilderness. In every direction
a great forest of oak, poplar, walnut, beech, gum, ash, and a
hundred other varieties of trees stretched over the hills and valleys,
and in its shade in most places grew a thicket of spicewood, hazel,
greenbriars, young saplings, and other underbrush. In these

thick woods the pioneer had to chop and grub a little field where
he might locate a home and raise a little crop. In some sections
all trees up to eighteen inches in diameter were felled; all over
that size were deadened, either by girdling with the axe or burning

" Banta, EUtory of Johnson County, p. 263.

31

them about the roots. The deadened trees fell year after year, so
that several clearings were necessary to rid the field of the forest.
The trees which he chopped down were cut in convenient lengths
for rolling. On an appointed day the neighbors met for a log-
rolling at which time they heaped up the scattered logs for burning.
Timber which today would be worth twice as much as the value of
the land was consigned to the fire to secure a little clearing of five
or six acres. On one nine acre tract the logs laid so thick that
a man could have walked all over the field without touching the
ground. Farmers rolled logs a large iimnber of days every year,
sometimes as many as twenty or tliirty. "John Carson, as late
as 1840, rolled logs twenty-two days in one year, and Samuel
Harriot, thirty-six day.s, but he was a politician.'' But the pioneer
farmer was not always able to roll his logs in time for planting
and tilling. Not infrequently he cultivated a crop among the fallen
logs, tilling the soil altogether with the hoe. Some felled the trees
in windrows and planted the crop in the open spaces.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

The pioneer farm was a very independent institution, a little
world of its own. Everything of daily use was made or substi-
tuted from its products, except salt- Food, clothing, agricultural
implements, almost everything that came into daily life were the
products of the community.

All the modern domestic animals, horses, cattle, sheep, hogs,
and domesticated fowls were raised. The cows and horses, however,
were of very inferior size due to the want of proper care in winter.
Cattle were not housed in cold weather, and, as hay was very
scarce, cornfodder was used as a substitute. In summer they were
belled and turned out to range in the woods. Horses were belled
and hobbled. Each farmer could identify the tinkle of his bells
among twenty others. Hogs roamed freely in the forests, where they
fattened in the fall on the mast. By winter time they were in fine
condition for killing. Some pioneers paid for their lands by raising
hogs in the woods.

ZZ

FARM IMPLEMENTS

There were no factory-made implements. There were, in the
early period, no wagon or blacksmith shops. The pioneers had to
depend upon their own resources for such tools and implements
as they needed. They made a very good plow with a wooden mold-
board. When iron was used, the plowshare, point and bar were all
of one piece. There were several kinds of plows. The bar-share
was a cumbersome, unsatisfactory implement with a long six-foot
beam, a three-foot bar, and handles that extended far backward.
Plowing with such an implement was laborious work, and even
dangerous in newly cleared ground abounding in roots and stumps.
It was a standing joke among the pioneers that a bar-share would
kick a man over the fence and kick him after he was over. In
a few years the bar-share was superseded by the Gary plow, which
approached the pattern of the modern implement, and this, about
1840, gave way in turn to the cast-iron plow- The shovel plow,
however, was a favorite with the farmer. A harrow, both timber
and teeth, was made from slippery elm or iron wood, usually in the
form of an "A." Singletrees and double trees were made much as
they are today except that clips, devices, and lap rings were made
of hickory withes. They made horse collars of corn shucks or raw-
hide. Raw-hide, too, was the materials of which bridles were manu-
factured. Properly crooked roots of forest trees furnished hames
which were also fastened Avith leather thongs. The truck wagon
with its rude wooden wheels was a familiar sight. The wheels were
made from sections of a tree of the proper diameter. Tough hickory
or white oak poles -fitted into four inch holes in the middle of the
wheels formed the axles. Each pair of wheels was conected by a
hickory or oak pole, fitting into four-inch holes in the wheels. A
rough coupling-pole completed the wagon. These crude, but service-
able, wagons wei'e drawn by plodding oxen joined by a heavy
wooden yoke, and were widely used for hauling wood, gathering
corn, and other services incident to farming. Paradoxical as it may
seem, the more grease one put on the axle the louder was the squeak-
which could sometimes be heard for a mile.^^ Pitchforks were made
entirely of wood from the forked boughs of a dogwood sapling or
the antlers of an elk. Wooden rakes of strong seasoned wood and
fitted with deer horns made very useful tools. Even spades were

'9 Cockrum, A Pioneer History of Indiana, p. 321.

33

fashioned from good hickory which had been seasoned and when
kept well oiled lasted for several years. Rude wooden sleds were in
universal use by all that possesed horses or cattle. All farm imple-
ments were pinned together with hickory pins inserted into holes
that were burned out, for the pioneer had no auger. Even settlers of
later years had very few tools, the entire list usually comprising only
a handsaw, crosscut saw, broadaxe, auger, chisel and drawing knife.
To these the whole neighborhood had access-

CROPS

With these rude tools the pioneer tilled his crops. He plowed
the ground as best he could but that is about all. During the first
few years there was little harrowing of the soil, the rough condition
of the field forbidding it. Grain sown "broadcast" was "brushed
in." Farmers, too, confined themselves chiefly to the raising of
Indian corn. But after mills suitable for grinding and bolting
flour became accessible, they began to raise wheat. Corn ripened
in about one hundred days after planting, so it was the most service-
able crop and perhaps the most widely cultivated. A field of this
crop when in full tassel presented a pleasing appearance. An old
French missionary writing back to his superior in the old world has
this to say of a fuU-tasseled cornfield tilled by his Indian catechu-
mens; "There are no fields so beautiful as these outside of para-
dise.^^ Flax for making linen was extensively cultivated. Oats
potatoes, hemp, pumpkins, and orchard crops yielded rich returns.
Apples, peaches, and grapes grew in abundance. Speaking of orchard
conditions in 1843, Henry Ward Beeeher said, "An orchard is to
be found on almost every farm, and lately the pear tree has been
more than ever sought after. At our October fair (county fair)
was exhibited the greatest variety of fruits and flowers ever exhib-
ited in this State, perhaps I may say in the West. From forty-five
to sixty varieties of apples competed for a premium. . . . The
number of seedling apples in this State is very great
aiul in the neighborhood in which they grow, are esteemed
more liighly by the settlers than the old standard fruits. "^^ From
these orchards, barrels of the finest cider were made and the vine-
yards furnished delicious wines. At Vevay, where a large number

»" Turpie. Skctch(.^ of My Oun Timef, p. 42.
»' Indiana Magazine of Ilittory, III., 189.

34

J

>j \^

.■\

H-/

. c

.>-».,

of Swiss settled, wine made from a round black grape was a staple
product. The old fashioned grarden was a thing of beauty. All
kinds of vegetables were grown, but a portion of the ground was
alloted to flowers. For a long time the tomato, introduced from the
south, was grown merely as an ornament, and curiosity. ^2 Nobody
ever thought of eating it, and it was not until later years that this
delicious food was used on the table or grown for the market.

THE HARVEST SEASON

Despite the sultry weather the harvest season was a joyous
time, a kind of a summer festival. Farmers of the neighborhood
usually five or six, combined and went from field to field reaping
and shocking as they went. At first the work was done with a
sickle and rake, but these implements were soon superseded by
the cradle. A half dozen cradles mowing with military precision
was an impressive sight. Although the labor was hard, the men
still had courage to jest and laugh. There were contests of skill
and endurance — the ambition of most farmer boys was to be expert
cradlers. The harvest on a single farm lasted on the average two or
three days. When the last shock was capped the tools were stacked
around it, the men and boys formed a circle, and, at a signal from
the captain, the reapers gave three cheers. If the echo replied
three times it was accounted a good omen for the next crop. A blast
from a horn at the cabin was heard in answer and the harvest was
ended. This little ceremony was known as the stubble call.^^ The
surplus of the crop was bartered away at the country town for
salt and other necessities. Sometimes it was sold for money, but
such sales were few, for little coin was in circulation at that time-
Men (lid not work for wages but for help in return.

The harvest season was characterized by good living. The
best cooks in the neighborhood vied with each other in the prepar-
ation of food, and the workers lived on the fat of the land. In
some communities whiskey was considered indispensable to the reap-
ers; in others only water and buttermilk were drunk. In the middle
of the afternoon, about 4 o'clock, it was the custom to send the men
a light lunch with coffee. At the close of the day an elaborate supper
awaited the workers, w^ho ate heartily with no thought of dyspepsia.

»» Turpie, Skflcliis of My Own Times, p.3;J.
»» Turpie, Sketches of My Oxen Times, p. 25.

36

Meals were usually served out of doors in a long booth covered with
green boughs, the table being bountifully supplied with substantial
food and a dessert of homemade pastries.

HUNTING GINSENG

The sale of ginseng furnished not a little revenue to tlie early
settler, for, being extremely valuable it was often paid for in cash.
Men and boys spent days in the wild woods hunting and digging
for the roots. It really required a skilled woodsman to locate the
plant. In later years, Turpie says, it was a custom among the
farmers to grant the boys three days each season to dig ''sang."
In this way the youngsters earned a little pocket money which they
were free to use as they pleased. It frequently was used to purchase
circus tickets.

SUGAR MAKING

An important industry of the early spring season was the man-
ufacture of maple sugar. Immense groves of sugar maples were
preserved after the surrounding forests were cleared away. In
1822 Governor's Circle in Indianapolis was a sugar camp.^* The
trees were tapped five or six feet above the ground. Rude troughs,
hollowed out from short logs, split in halves, were placed at the
trees to catch the flowing sap. Often these were scaffolded up by the
poles to keep the hogs from drinking the water. Each morning the
water was collected in a barrel, drawn on a sled from tree to tree
by an ox team- In the sugar camp the sap w^as boiled into syrup
or sugar. The Indians were as fond of maple sugar as the white
and more than one old chief, sent west by the government, has
wandered back to his former Indiana haunts in search of maple
sweets.

DIFFICULTY IN OBTAINING SALT

From 1800 to 1820 the settlers experienced great difficulty in
necking a sufficient supply of salt for culinary purposes and for
the preservation of their game. It was very expensive, costing all
the way from twelve to twenty cents per pound. So great was the
demand for it and so limited the supply that it became a kind of
standard of value. A bear skin was worth fifty cents in salt, a deer

" r/u Indiana Magazine of Hilary, II., p. 1„»<J.

38

skin tAventy cents, and a raccoon skin about fifteen cents. Pilgri-
mages to the licks and salt springs were made in large companies
to guard against the surprises of Indians. At the springs the men
camped out until they had evaporated enough salt for a year's
supply. One of the perquisites insisted on by the Indians in their
treaties with the United States was their annuity of salt.^^

FLATBOATS

In the early times the creeks and rivers of the State echoed with
the songs of the flatboatmen Avho carried farm produce from the
river landings down the Mississippi to the southern market, New
Orleans. The construction of one of these boats required great
labor.^^ First, two immense gunwhales from sixty to eighty feet
in length were hewed from a large poplar tree. They were hauled to
the river bank and placed on rollers. Strong girders were framed
into them every eight or ten feet and securely fastened by heavy
wooden pins. Small sleepers which were to receive the bottom of the
boat w^ere pinned into the girders every eighteen inches and flush
with the bottom of the gunwhales. Upon this foundation a double
bottom, securely calked with hemp w^as constructed. When the
bottom was finished the craft was ready for launching. With a
little effort the structure was rolled doAvn the slope on the rollers
into the water. Having been built bottom upward the boat had
to be turned. This was accomplished by hitching two or three
yoke of oxen to a line attached to the farther edge of the boat and
carried over a limb or fork of a tree. The upper frame work for
the body of the boat was then made secure with braces, and the
siding nailed on- Strong joints were placed upon the frame work
from side to side holding up the decking. At each end a strong post
extended about three feet above the decking. By means of these
posts the craft could be brought to shore and fastened to a tree or
some other object. When the posts were revolved by spikes thrust
through the holes bored into them the rope was gradually wound
up and the boat pulled to shore. There were three oars, a steering
oar at the back and two others used as sw^eeps to propel the craft and
keep it out of the eddies. Such a crude boat was staunch and could

=•» United States Statutes at Large, VII., 191.

Cockrum, A Pioneer History of Indiana, p. 474.
38 Levering, Historic Indiana, p. 74.

Cockrum, A Pioneer History of Indiana, pp. SOS-.'ilO.

39

^*A

carry a very lar^re amount of beef, pork, flour, meal, wheat, and
corn to market. The vessels which usually travelled in fleets of
eight or ten, started on their voyages in the early spring. The trip
required six weeks. When the destination was reached and the
eargo sold, the crew returned home by steamer. Some old rivermen,
liowever, returned afoot.

STORES AND TRADE

Money was very scarce. As a result the barter system, devel-
oped to a rather complex stage, was in full sway. At the stores
it was supplemented by the credit system for the convenience of the
citizens. Powder, lead, salt, iron, leather, and whiskey were staples
at every little store and were exchanged for such products as bees-
wax, tallow, feathers, ginseng, furs, deerskins, and wild hops. A
few stores with a little more complete stock carried, in addition,
knives, shears, sickles, augurs, trace chains, and other hardware;
calico, fine cambric, pins, needles, and maybe a little broadcloth.
At such a place the young girl got her wedding garments and the
young dandy his "coat of blue cloth with yellow metal buttons,
high rolling collar, and forked tail." Coffee, tea, sugar, and tobacco
Avere luxuries commanding almost fabulous prices. On the other
hand farm products were ridiculously cheap. It took eighty bushels
of corn to buy a yard of silk, eight bushels to buy a yard of calico,
and one hundred bushels to buy a yard of broad cloth-
After the settlers had paid for their quarter section of land at
the government price of $1.25 per acre they had little money with
which to support a family or improve the purchase. Credit was
necessary. The country was literally cleared and improved on
credit.^"^ Merchants and business men gave credit freely, and they
in turn received long credit from the great eastern houses. In
this way the pioneers were tided over until they could get a foot-
hold. About the only articles that could not be bought on credit
were powder, shot, whiskey and salt. An editor once promised that
he would receive pay for subscriptions in corn, ginseng, honey, flour,
pork, or almost anything but promises.

Trading was a feature of every assemblage of the public. They
even "dickered" at church about the articles they needed. And
the public square on court day was a veritable market.

»^ Indiana Magazine of History, III., 125.

41

>^

PIONEER MILLS

Horse mills were first used to grind grain and Indian corn.
But as soon as possible some settler, in every neighborhood where
water power was available, would build a dam and set up a water
mill. It involved the expenditure of not a little capital, for those
days, to purchase a site, dig a race, and build a house to enclose
the machinery. People came from twenty to thirty miles and of-
ten had to wait three or four days and nights for the grist. The
grain was brought in sacks on horseback and the men and boys
camped about the mill until their turns. At the water mills the toll
was usually one sixth, but at horse mills and later steam mills it
was one fourth, but every man had to bolt his own flour from the
chaff. Patrons declared of course that the miller took too much
toll. In fact most millers were suspected more or less of dishonesty,
an imputation altogether unfounded. An amusing story is told
which illustrates this distrust. A farmer sent his boy with a sack
of corn to the mill and told him to watch the miller for if he did not
the fellow would steal all the corn. When the lad's turn came he
never lost sight of the sack. Finally the miller poured the corn
into the hopper and dropped the sack at his feet. The boy watch-
ed his chance, snatched the sack away, and rode his horse home as
fast as the animal could go- The father who came out into the
yard said, ' ' Johnny, where is your meal, and why are you riding so
fast?" The boy answered, "The old rascal stole every grain of
the corn and aimed to keep the sack ; but I watched him, and as soon
as he laid it dowTi I got it and ran home."^^

ROADS AND TRAVEL

Our pioneer fathers did not travel very extensively. Some of
them never passed beyond the confines of their immediate settle-
ments. The lack of roads was of course responsible for this isola-
tion and provinciality. The earliest roads were narrow, winding,
Indian trails where travel was single file. When immigration in-
creased, rough roads were *' blazed" and cleared away sufficient, to
permit the passage of lumbering wagons. They were strips sixty
feet wide, from which the trees had been cut and removed. In the
center of the roadway the stumps were cut low to permit the pas-

»• Cockrum, A Pioneer History of Indiana, p. 326.

43

sage of the axles of the wagon. In the rest the stumps stood two
or three feet high all along the route. There was no attempt at
drainage or embankments. When the rains fell in summer or when
the frozen ground thawed in winter, they became almost impassable.
Streams had to be crossed by fording or by rude ferries. The worst
places were made passable by corduroy, constructed of rough logs
laid side by side and kept in place by their weight. About 1820 a
definite system of roads was projected to connect important points.
In that year not less than twenty-six roads, connecting the older
towns and even extending into the interior, were projected and com-
missioners appointed to view the land and mark out the routes. A
strong impulse toward road improvement was given by the opening
of the Wabash and Erie canal. Plank roads which made very ad-
mirable highways were built by corporations, who operated them
for toll. But they were not satisfactory , continual repairs being
necessary on account of exposure to the weather. Later gravel and
pike roads came into use after the subsidence of the craze for rail-
way construction.

A distant journey was an undertaking of no little moment. A
traveler in winter carefully protected his legs by sufficient wrap-
pings. In his bulging saddlebags he carried his clothes, shaving
jjpparatus, and other articles, indispensable to a traveler. Settlers
often carried fire with them, so that they might not be detained in
making a fire by the slow process of flint and steel.

OLD TIME TAVERNS

As travel along a particular road became more general some
families undertook to offer rude hospitality to the w^ayfarers. The
best cook and housekeeper soon became known and her cabin was
selected as the goal for the day's journey. In this way some people
began to "keep tavern". From this humble beginning it was not
very long until regular hostelries were established for the entertain-
ment of guest. ^^ Liquor soon came to be sold, but a liquor seller
must have a tavern license certifying that he was a freeholder, and
that he had two spare beds and two horse stalls, that were not nec-
essary for his own use. This was the only form of liquor license
issued in the early days. Way-houses that did not sell liqror need-

"* iTidiana Magazine of History, I., 79 80 ; III., 187.
Twaite*. EarUj Wettetn TVatrLs IX., 161.

44

ed no license and advertised their hospitality as "private entertain-
ment/' There were many taverns on the different roads radiating
from Indianapolis. Tliey were log, frame, and sometimes brick
structures with a wooden piazza in front. At the side from the top
of a tall post hung a sign board portraying a rude representation of
Washington, Wayne, Jackson, or some other noted man. These
signs were odd and catchy. One displayed its welcome in poetry:

"This gate hangs high and hinders none.
Refresh and pay, then travel on."

At the top of the house was a small bell which was rung at meal
time, when the boarders gathered around the table and ate without
any preface. All classes dined together, high and low, rich and
poor.First class entertainment could be had for man and beast all for
seventy-five cents. For man there was corn-bread, chicken, eggs,
venison, bacon, preserved fruits, buckwheat cakes and honey; for
beast, a good feed of corn, oats and hay. There were usually sev-
eral beds in the same room, an arangement which afforded little or
no privacy. The guests washed at a wooden trough behind the
house or at the pump- Most lawyers, doctors, business men, and
the more prosperous farmers stopped at these old-time taverns on
their way to and from the capital or larger cities. After a hard
day of travel through mud and rain these inns were doubly at-
tractive. The traveler was welcomed to a seat near the big open
fire. A boy stripped off his leggings, took his great coat and hat
and bore them away to be dried ; his shoes were replaced by a pair
of light, comfortable ''pumps." Every progressive tavern had a
large supply of this cheap but convenient footwear. With all this
there was a glass of something warm to take off the chill. In the
morning the shoes were returned neatly brushed and blackened, or
tallowed perhaps; the damp clothing dried and cleaned once more.
Wagoners driving mules or oxen on their way to the river towns
>\ith loads of produce, were frequently guests at the inns. Yards
had to be provided for the wagons and for hogs that were driven
overland to the market. Accomodations were few and poor, but
the genuineness of the hospitality and the humor and good nature
of the landlord were sufficient to satisfy the pioneer traveler.

46

1

PAMPHLET BINDER

Syracuse, N. Y.

Stockton, Calif.

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA
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